Introduction
The Press Council of India (PCI) stands as the cornerstone of press ethics and journalistic standards in India. Established as a statutory, quasi-judicial body, the PCI plays a crucial role in maintaining and improving the standards of newspapers and news agencies in the world’s largest democracy. This report delves into the structure, functions, and impact of the PCI, exploring its role in shaping media ethics and addressing the evolving challenges in the Indian media landscape.
Marginalisation means when a certain person or a sect of people is made to feel of lesser importance by those in power. Marginalised persons are forced to the periphery or the edge of society. This, in turn, robs them of the facilities and opportunities enjoyed by the non-marginalised sections of society.
Marginalized groups
Marginalised groups are those excluded from full participation in social, economic, and political life.
Causes: caste hierarchy, poverty, gender bias, disability, and age-based discrimination. The media has the power to include or exclude these voices through its narratives and priorities.
Understand the Power of Media
The media is an essential attribute of a democratic polity — both work hand in hand. If democracy is the government of the people, then the media is the voice of the people. The media is the only force that ensures the free flow of information in society. When the media is restricted, censored, or obstructed, citizens remain uninformed:
Unaware of their rights and duties,
Ignorant of their needs and social issues,
Unconscious of the role they can play in improving their society and nation.
Media came into existence in 1780 with the introduction of a newspaper, namely "The Bengal Gazette" and since then it has matured leaps and bounds. It has been playing a very important role in shaping human minds. The media makes us aware of various social, political and economic activities happening around the world.
It is like a mirror, which shows us or strives to show us the bare truth and harsh realities of life. The media also exposes loopholes in the democratic system, which ultimately helps the government infilling the vacuums of loopholes and make the system more accountable, responsive and citizen-friendly
A democracy without media is like a vehicle without wheels. It is mostly observed that news on political and economic issues dominates over social issues. Social issues are not given the kind of importance or platform of communication that they deserve. Issues of violence against women and other forms of discrimination against women, which basically stems from inequality – both in terms of physical and economic power – between men and women, are rarely given the importance they deserve.
Due to the outreach and technological sophistication, the Media’s role has now expanded and increased beyond the mere supply of information. It can be said that the media can now 'create reality’.
Media can effectively shape public opinion, influence personal beliefs, and even alter people’s self-perceptions. Ideologies, thought processes, and the methods of socialization are greatly influenced by the media. It is time that the media become highly sensitive to gender issues.
Media Matters
“Print and electronic media do not provide a balanced picture of women’s diverse lives and contributions to society in a changing world.”
BEIJING PLATFORM FOR ACTION 1995
Nearly 25 years ago, in 1995, during the Fourth World Conference on Women, 189 UN Member States recognised the central role of media in shifting the gender stereotypes that influence how we think and act
Media Reporting on Child Sexual Abuse and POCSO
How is it reported?
Asifa Bano: The child rape and murder that has Kashmir on edge
India rape: Six-year-old victim's eyes damaged in attack
Kathua rape-murder case verdict Live Updates: Life imprisonment for 3 accused, victim's lawyer disappointed - India Today
Guidelines by Media Regulators
Reporting Rape
1. The audio-visual presentation of any content will be given in a responsible and aesthetic manner, subject to the condition that the following shall not be included in these three categories: Category ‘U’, Category ‘U/A’ and Category ‘A’. (Ministry of Information & Broadcasting)
2. Use suitable techniques such as masking, blurring, changing names or identities etc., particularly in the cases of minors, victims of sexual violence or dreaded diseases like HIV/AIDS or natural or other disasters unless there is an identifiable larger public interest involved. (Indian Broadcasting Federation)
3. Electronic media should not show visuals or details which could "re-traumatise" the victims or reveal their identities. (News Broadcasting Standards Authority)
4. Where any proceedings are held under sub-section (2) *, it shall not be lawful for any person to print or publish any matter in relation to any such proceedings, except with the previous permission of the court. (Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973)
The alleged criminal and the victim, and the witnesses must be identified with utmost care, with no implications of caste or religion. Only on the strongest grounds of public interest should any of these considerations be diluted. (The Editors Guild of India)
Actions Taken
Disclosure of rape victims' identity:
Even the dead have dignity, can't be named and shamed, says SC
•It said that even in cases where the rape victims were alive and were either minors or of unsound mind, their identities should not be revealed as they have the right to privacy, and they cannot live under such a "stigma" throughout their life.
•"Think of the dignity of dead also. It (media reporting) can be done without naming or shaming them. The dead also have dignity," a bench comprising Justices Madan B Lokur and Deepak Gupta said while hearing the matter in which senior lawyer Indira Jaising raked up the issue of section 228-A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) which deals with disclosure of identity of victims of sexual offences.
Based on Human Rights Watch Report — “They Say We’re Dirty” (2014)
•Despite constitutional guarantees, marginalised children in India—Dalits, tribals, and Minorities—continue to face discrimination in schools.•
•Right to Education Act (RTE, 2009) promises free education for ages 6–14, yet nearly half of enrolled children drop out before completing elementary school.•
•Human Rights Watch report highlights systemic neglect, bias, and weak accountability.
Key Findings
Discrimination in schools remains widespread and normalised. Teachers and staff often treat Dalit, tribal, and marginalised children unequally. Weak monitoring and redress mechanisms fail to prevent dropouts. Over 80 million children drop out before completing elementary education
Forms of Discrimination
Marginalised children are:
Made to sit separately or at the back of classrooms.
Insulted with derogatory names.
Served food last during mid-day meals.
Denied leadership roles or class participation.
Forced to clean toilets or do menial tasks.
“The teacher tells us to sit on the other side... she says we are dirty.” – Pankaj, 8-year-old tribal boy, U.P.
Case Examples
Javed (10, Delhi): Called “Mullah” by teachers and classmates; felt humiliated.
Shyam (14, U.P.): Made to sit in corners, denied food, and eventually dropped out.
Naresh (12, Bihar): Forced to massage teachers’ legs and clean toilets.
These experiences create fear, shame, and alienation, driving children away from school.
Recommendations
Stronger Monitoring: Track every child from enrolment to Grade VIII.
Effective Redress: Establish independent complaint mechanisms.
Teacher Training: Promote Inclusivity and Anti-Discrimination Education.
Accountability: Penalise those who discriminate.
Community Involvement: Strengthen School Management Committees
What Media Need to do?
Simultaneously run programs that highlight the fact that ensuring the safety and dignity of a child is the responsibility of adults, as well as help others learn how to teach personal safety to small children without instilling fear or distrust of adults.
Follow up cases/ intermittently until the trial is complete.
What needs to be done...
•Terminology in reporting crime against women and children is an area where change is occurring.
•It is particularly important not to mix up what is legal with what is not and give a stamp of respectability:
•Not “images of child pornography” but “images of child abuse”;
•Not “elopement with a teacher” but “abduction”;
•Not “child prostitution/child prostitute” but “child abuse and abused child”.
•The media plays an important role in reflecting attitudes in society. Those who work in the media should be conscious of this.
- John Battle, Head of Compliance, ITN, United Kingdom
Media and Dalits
Examining Representation, Reality, and Responsibility
According to the 2018 Oxfam report, 88% of leadership positions in Indian media were held by 'upper' castes. Dalits held no positions. Four years later, that number still remains zero.
•In India, however, Dalit representation and reportage remain deeply imbalanced.
•Even as caste-based atrocities continue, the media narrative often overlooks, underplays, or sensationalises Dalit suffering.
Recent example: The CJP (Citizens for Justice and Peace) Report, Sept 2024, documented a series of brutal caste-based crimes within just two months, revealing a national crisis of justice and equality.
The Context of Caste Discrimination
Despite constitutional guarantees of equality (Articles 14, 15, 17) and the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, caste discrimination remains pervasive.
Dalits (Scheduled Castes) continue to face:
•Social exclusion and segregation
•Physical and sexual violence
•Institutional discrimination in education, employment, and justice systems
The media’s role becomes critical in exposing these injustices and holding power accountable.
Role of Media in Reporting Dalit Issues
Functions of media related to Dalit rights:
•Information dissemination – Reporting atrocities and discrimination cases.
•Awareness creation – Educating society on caste inequality and human rights.
•Accountability – Pressuring governments and institutions to act.
•Representation – Including Dalit voices and perspectives in mainstream narratives.
Yet, coverage remains inconsistent, urban-biased, and elite-driven.
Case Study — CJP Report (July–Sept 2024)
Title: “The Alarming Rise of Anti-Dalit Violence and Discrimination in India”
Publisher: Citizens for Justice and Peace (CJP), Sept 5, 2024
The report documented dozens of caste atrocities across states within two months.
It revealed that Dalit lives remain undervalued, and media coverage was fragmented and reactive.
Selected Incidents (2024)
Uttar Pradesh (July 23):
A 15-year-old Dalit boy forced to drink urine.
The act was filmed and circulated on social media.
Police acted only after public outrage.
Karnataka (Aug 18):
Dalit man stabbed to death after caste-based abuse.
Locals demanded justice; minimal media follow-up.
Karnataka (Sept 3):
Dalit woman poisoned to death after inter-caste marriage.
Case shows intersection of patriarchy and caste oppression.
Karnataka (Sept 4):
67-year-old Dalit elder beaten with a wooden pole for taking shelter from rain.
Attack rooted in caste prejudice.
Status of Tribal Population in India
The tribal population constitutes a majority in the northeastern states of Mizoram and Lakshadweep (94.4%), Meghalaya (86.1%), and Nagaland (86.5%).
The states with no Scheduled tribe groups are Punjab, Chandigarh, Haryana, Delhi and Pondicherry. India has total tribal population of 10.43 crores which is 8.6% of total population of India as per 2011 census.
Importance of Media in Social issues of Tribes
The media has got a vital role in molding a good society to develop our lifestyle and move it on the right path, because it always try to side with the truth and relevant factor.
It is the best tool to spread awareness in social issues of tribes and the modern society either it be political, social or economic and giving us latest sight about what is happening in our world.
Adivasis (Tribal Communities)
The term “Adivasis” literally means “original inhabitants”. They comprise about 8 % of India’s population.
They often live close to forests and have their own languages, religions and ways of life distinct from the dominant society.
Many Adivasis face marginalisation because:
Their lands are taken for mining and development and they lose their livelihood and inheritance.
They are often portrayed in stereotypical ways seen as “exotic”, “primitive”, or “backward”.
The Rise of Alternative & Community Media
Community Radio Stations (CRS): e.g., Mandakini Ki Awaaz (Uttarakhand), Radio Dhadkan (Madhya Pradesh) – promote local culture and dialects.
Digital Tribal Journalism: Youth-led initiatives use mobile journalism to document local issues, environment, education, rights, and culture.
Social Media Empowerment: Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube have allowed tribal creators to share music, storytelling, and activism globally.
Media and Differently-abled, Old-aged persons
Inspiration and Empowerment: Movies and news stories about achievers like Arunima Sinha or Deepa Malik help change societal mindsets.
Awareness Campaigns: Programs like ‘Disability Matters’ and ‘Ability Fest’ promote inclusion in media and arts.
Policy Promotion: Media has supported campaigns for the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (2016) and accessibility initiatives like Accessible India Campaign (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan).
Challenges & Issues
•Stereotyping: Often portrayed as objects of pity or charity rather than as capable individuals.
•Lack of Representation: Very few differently-abled anchors, journalists, or characters in films.
•Limited Accessibility: Media platforms themselves (websites, TV shows, news broadcasts) often lack accessibility features such as subtitles, sign language, or screen-reader compatibility.
Media and old-aged persons
Representation of Wisdom: Senior citizens are shown as sources of experience, moral strength, and family values.
Awareness of Issues: Media coverage of elder abuse, loneliness, and health care brings attention to their problems.
Promotion of Active Ageing: Campaigns encouraging healthy lifestyles, lifelong learning, and intergenerational bonding.
Challenges & Issues
Stereotypical Portrayals: Often shown as dependent, frail, or irrelevant to modern life.
Neglect in Media Content: Mainstream media largely focus on youth-oriented issues, ignoring the concerns of the elderly.
Digital Exclusion: Lack of digital literacy and accessible technology creates a “digital divide” for older persons.
Need for Inclusive and Sensitive Media
Representation with Dignity: Show differently-abled and elderly people as individuals with aspirations, not just as victims.
Accessibility: All content should include subtitles, sign language, and audio descriptions.
Participation: Involve differently-abled and elderly persons in production, writing, and reporting roles.
Policy Advocacy: Media can push for effective implementation of laws like:
Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (2016)
Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act (2007)
Examples of Inclusive Initiatives
Doordarshan’s Special Programs: Segments focusing on disability rights and senior welfare.
Social Media Campaigns: #WeAreDisabledNotWeak and #ActiveAging have gained traction online.
Films:
Black (2005) – portrayed the struggle and strength of a deaf-blind woman.
Paa (2009) – highlighted old-age health issues with dignity.
Margarita With a Straw (2014) – broke stereotypes about disability and identity.
Creations of the mind: inventions; literary and artistic works; and symbols, names and images used in commerce.
Categories of IPR
Industrial Property: Patents for inventions, trademarks, industrial designs and geographical indications.
Copyrights: literary works (such as novels, poems and plays), films, music, artistic works (e.g., drawings, paintings, photographs and sculptures) and architectural design.
Rights related to copyright include those of performing artists in their performances, producers of phonograms in their recordings, and broadcasters in their radio and television programs.
What are intellectual property rights?
Intellectual property rights are like any other property right. They allow creators, or owners, of patents, trademarks or copyrighted works to benefit from their own work or investment in a creation.
These rights are outlined in Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which provides for the right to benefit from the protection of moral and material interests resulting from authorship of scientific, literary or artistic productions.
The importance of intellectual property was first recognised in the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883) and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (1886). Both treaties are administered by the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO).
Why promote and protect intellectual property?
There are several compelling reasons. First, the progress and well-being of humanity rest on its capacity to create and invent new works in the areas of technology and culture.
Second, the legal protection of new creations encourages the commitment of additional resources for further innovation.
Third, the promotion and protection of intellectual property spurs economic growth, creates new jobs and industries, and enhances the quality and enjoyment of life.
How does the average person benefit?
Intellectual property rights reward creativity and human endeavour, which fuel the progress of humankind. Some examples:
The multibillion-dollar film, recording, publishing and software industries-which bring pleasure to millions of people worldwide-would not exist without copyright protection.
Without the rewards provided by the patent system, researchers and inventors would have little incentive to continue producing better and more efficient products for consumers.
Consumers would have no means to confidently buy products or services without reliable, international trademark protection and enforcement mechanisms to discourage counterfeiting and piracy.
Copyright
Copyright laws grant authors, artists and other creators protection for their literary and artistic creations, generally referred to as "works".
A closely associated field is "related rights" or rights related to copyright that encompass rights similar or identical to those of copyright, although sometimes more limited and of shorter duration.
The beneficiaries of related rights are: performers (such as actors and musicians) in their performances; producers of phonograms (for example, compact discs) in their sound recordings; and broadcasting organisations in their radio and television programs.
Works covered by copyright include, but are not limited to: novels, poems, plays, reference works, newspapers, advertisements, computer programs, databases, films, musical compositions, choreography, paintings, drawings, photographs, sculpture, architecture, maps and technical drawings.
What rights do copyright and related rights provide?
The creators of works protected by copyright, and their heirs and successors (generally referred to as "right holders"), have certain basic rights under copyright law.
They hold the exclusive right to use or authorise others to use the work on agreed terms.
The right holder(s) of a work can authorise or prohibit: its reproduction in all forms, including print form and sound recording; its public performance and communication to the public; its broadcasting; its translation into other languages; and its adaptation, such as from a novel to a screenplay for a film.
Similar rights of, among others, fixation (recording) and reproduction are granted under related rights.
Many types of works protected under the laws of copyright and related rights require mass distribution, communication and financial investment for their successful dissemination (for example, publications, sound recordings and films).
Hence, creators often transfer these rights to companies better able to develop and market the works, in return for compensation in the form of payments and/or royalties (compensation based on a percentage of revenues generated by the work).
The economic rights relating to copyright are of limited duration -as provided for in the relevant WIPO treaties - beginning with the creation and fixation of the work, and lasting for not less than 50 years after the creator's death.
National laws may establish longer terms of protection. This term of protection enables both creators and their heirs and successors to benefit financially for a reasonable period of time.
Related rights enjoy shorter terms, normally 50 years after the performance, recording or broadcast has taken place.
Copyright and the protection of performers also include moral rights, meaning the right to claim authorship of a work, and the right to oppose changes to the work that could harm the creator's reputation.
Copyright law in India
• The Copyright Act of 1957, The Copyright Rules, 1958 and the International Copyright Order, 1999 govern the copyright protection in India. It came into effect from January 1958.
The Act has been amended in 1983, 1984, 1992, 1994 and 1999. Before the Act of 1957, copyright protection was governed by the Copyright Act of 1914, which was the extension of the British Copyright Act, 1911.
The Copyright Act, 1957 consists of 79 sections under 15 chapters, while the Copyright Rules, 1958 consist of 28 rules under 9 chapters and 2 schedules.
Benefits of copyright and related rights
Copyright and related rights protection an essential components in fostering human creativity and innovation.
Giving authors, artists and creators incentives in the form of recognition and fair economic reward increases their activity and output and can also enhance the results. By ensuring the existence and enforceability of rights, individuals and companies can more easily invest in the creation, development and global dissemination of their works.
This, in turn, helps to increase access to and enhance the enjoyment of culture, knowledge and entertainment the world over, and also stimulates economic and social development.
Copyright and advances in technology
The field of copyright and related rights has expanded enormously during the last several decades with the spectacular progress of technological development that has, in turn, yielded new ways of disseminating creations by such forms of communication as satellite broadcasting, compact discs and DVDs.
Widespread dissemination of works via the Internet raises difficult questions concerning copyright and related rights in this global medium.
WIPO is fully involved in the ongoing international debate to shape new. standards for copyright protection in cyberspace.
In that regard, the Organisation administers the WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT), known as the "Internet Treaties".
These treaties clarify international norms aimed at preventing unauthorised access to and use of creative works on the Internet.
IPR: CASE STUDY
Case: Emami Ltd. vs.Arbaaz Khan Productions
Issue: Copyright and brand misuse over the phrase "Zandu Balm" in the song "Munni Badnaam Hui" (from the film Dabangg).
On September 17, Emami Ltd. sent a legal notice to Arbaaz Khan Productions for using the phrase "Zandu Balm" in the popular song "Munni Badnaam Hui."
Emami claimed that this usage:
Violated copyright over the registered brand name.
Damaged the reputation of both the company and the product.
Zandu Balm officials stated that the song defamed their brand and misused their intellectual property.
Emami's Legal Demand
Emami demanded that the producers either: Remove the phrase "Zandu Balm" from the song, or
Delete the song from the film entirely.
Emami had acquired Zandu Pharmaceuticals in 2008 for ₹700 crore, and the merged entity was then worth about ₹1,000 crore.
Initial Reactions
Industry insiders (as of September 19) reported that:
The dispute was not expected to go to court.
Both parties were considering an out-of-court settlement.
Emami was exploring the idea of using the song to promote its product.
Arbaaz Khan responded:
"Now that our film is a big success, such things are bound to happen. Everyone wants a share of the pie."
Final Outcome
Eventually, Emami and Arbaaz Khan Productions resolved the issue amicably.
A barter deal was reached: The filmmakers could continue using "Zandu Balm" in the song.
In return, Emami gained advertising rights to use the song in its own promotions.
Malaika Arora Khan, who performed in the song, agreed to do a free advertisement for Zandu Balm as part of the settlement
The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986 aims to prohibit the indecent portrayal of women in media and advertisements, safeguarding their dignity and promoting gender equality.
Purpose of the Act
The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986 was enacted to address the derogatory and indecent portrayal of women in various forms of media, including advertisements, publications, and artworks. The Act seeks to protect women's dignity and prevent sexual objectification by prohibiting representations that are offensive or harmful to public morals.
India Code
Key Provisions
Prohibition of Indecent Representation: The Act prohibits the publication or exhibition of any advertisement that contains indecent representation of women. This includes any form of commercial communication that portrays women in a degrading manner.
2
Scope of the Act: It extends to all forms of media, including print, broadcast, and digital platforms. The Act applies to various materials such as books, pamphlets, films, and photographs that depict women indecently.
2
Definitions: The Act provides specific definitions for terms like "indecent representation," which refers to any portrayal of a woman's figure or body in a manner that is derogatory or likely to corrupt public morality.
2
Penalties: Violations of the Act can lead to penalties, including fines and imprisonment. The Act empowers law enforcement to investigate and seize materials that violate its provisions.
Links: Indecent Representation of Women Prohibition Act 1986
Historical Evolution of Live Reporting
Early Beginnings:
Live reporting began with radio broadcasts in the early 20th century, notably during World War II.
Edward R. Murrow’s live reports from London during the Blitz set a precedent for real-time war journalism.
Television Era:
The 1960s saw the rise of live TV coverage, including the assassination of JFK and the moon landing.
Satellite technology enabled global live broadcasts, such as the 1989 fall of the Berlin Wall.
Digital Revolution:
The 2000s introduced live blogging and streaming via platforms like YouTube, Facebook Live, and X (formerly Twitter).
Citizen journalism emerged, allowing anyone with a smartphone to report live from the scene.
Nature and Characteristics of Live Reporting
Definition: Real-time coverage of unfolding events, often without post-production or editorial delay.
Key Features:
Immediacy and spontaneity
High emotional impact
Unfiltered access to events
Requires improvisation and adaptability
Challenges:
Technical glitches
Incomplete information
Pressure to be first vs. pressure to be accurate
Impact of Live Reporting
Positive Impacts
Public Engagement:
Creates a sense of urgency and connection
Encourages civic participation and awareness
Transparency:
Reduces gatekeeping by traditional media.
Offers raw, unedited views of events.
Democratization of News:
Empowers citizen journalists.
Diversifies perspectives beyond mainstream narratives.
Negative Impacts
Misinformation Risks:
Speed often compromises verification
False narratives can spread rapidly
Emotional Manipulation:
Sensationalism may override substance
Can amplify trauma or panic during crises
Ethical Dilemmas:
Privacy violations (e.g., showing victims live)
Safety risks for reporters and subjects
Ethical Considerations:
Verification vs. Velocity:
Journalists must balance speed with accuracy
Use of backgrounders and fact-checking is essential
Consent and Sensitivity:
Avoid broadcasting distressing content without consent
Respect cultural and personal boundaries
Legal Boundaries:
Sting operations, phone tapping, and live coverage of trials raise legal and ethical concerns
Suggested Readings
Media Ethics Paranjoy Guha Thakurta Ethics in Indian journalism
Radio Journalism in India Dr. Vartika Nanda Evolution of radio and live reporting
News Writing and Reporting Bruce D. Itule & Douglas A. Anderson Techniques and structure of news
Censorium William Mazzarella Media, censorship, and public culture
SYLLABUS : MEDIA LAWS AND ETHICS
UNIT – I (15 hours)
UNIT I: Ethical framework and media practice
• Freedom of expression (Article 19(1) (a) and Article 19(1)2)
• Freedom of expression and defamation- Libel and slander, Issues of privacy and
surveillance in society
• Right to Information Idea of Fair Trial/Trial by Media
• Issues of Copyright
• Media ethics and cultural dependence
• Live reporting and ethics Legality and Ethicality of Sting Operations,
• Phone Tapping etc. Ethical issues in Social media ( IT Act 2000, Sec 66 A and the
verdict of the Supreme Court )
UNIT – II (15 hours)
UNIT II: Representation, Regulation and ethics
• Advertisement and Women
• Pornography related laws and case studies- Indecent representation of Women
(Prohibition) Act,1986 and rules 1987, Protection of Women against Sexual
Harassment Bill, 2007, Sec 67 of IT Act 2000 and 292 IPC etc
• Regulatory bodies, codes and ethical guidelines
• Self-regulation, media content- Debates on morality and accountability: taste,
culture and taboo, censorship and media debates
UNIT – III (15 hours)
UNIT III: Media and Social Responsibility
• Media reportage of marginalized sections- children, Dalits, tribals, gender, differently-abled, old-aged persons.
• Media coverage of violence and related laws - inflammatory writing (IPC 353), Sedition- incitement to violence, hate speech
Practical component (if any) - NIL Essential/recommended readings:
- Nanda, Vartika, Media Laws and Ethics, Kanishka Publishers
- Thakurta, Paranjoy Guha, Media Ethics, Oxford University Press, 2009 2. Barrie mc Donald and Michel petheran Media Ethics,mansell, 1998.
- Austin Sarat Where Law Meets Popular Culture (ed.), The University of Alabama Press, 2011.
- Vikram Raghvan, Communication Law in India, Lexis Nexis Publication, 2007
- Iyer Vekat, Mass Media Laws and Regulations in India-Published by AMIC, 2000
- William Mazzarella, Censorium: Cinema and the Open Edge of Mass Publicity, 2013
Suggestive readings:
- Raminder Kaur, William Mazzarella, Censorship in South Asia: Cultural Regulation from Sedition to Seduction, 2009
- Linda Williams, Hard Core: Power, Pleasure, and the "Frenzy of the Visible, 1999
EDITOR: Dr. Vartika Nanda
PUBLISHER: Kanishka Publishers Distributors
ISBN : 978-81-8457-833-1
YEAR: 2018
PAGES:227
PRICE: ₹750
“ With the media conducting trials and announcing the conviction of an accused as guilty takes away the chance of the innocent to prove otherwise. Even if the court releases the accused as innocent in the case, he becomes the victim of the media trial, ruining his reputation in public eye” (Page 50)
Why to read this book:
Media Laws and Ethics: An Introduction to Legal and Ethical Issues in Journalism by Dr. Vartika Nanda is a valuable resource for anyone wanting to understand the legal and ethical framework that shapes journalism in India. Covering twelve chapters, the book discusses key issues like media ownership, sting operations, media trials, privacy, and self-regulation. It combines insights from experienced scholars and journalists, making complex topics more accessible.
Case Studies:
One of the strengths of this book is its use of real-life case studies to explain ethical dilemmas. The Aarushi Talwar case is a prime example of how media trials can influence public opinion before a court’s verdict. Similarly, the 26/11 Mumbai attacks coverage raised concerns about live reporting, as sensitive information broadcasted on TV may have aided the attackers. These cases highlight the responsibility that comes with journalism.
The intersection of Law and Ethics:
The book dives into important legal aspects of journalism, including defamation, contempt of court, and paid news. It also discusses how corporate influence can affect editorial independence, with Professor Keval J. Kumar explaining how “private treaties” between media houses and businesses can lead to biased reporting.
Understanding Indian Media Laws:
Unlike many books that focus on Western media laws,Media Laws and Ethics is rooted in the Indian legal framework. It has references of the laws like the Cable Television Networks Regulation Act and discusses landmark cases such as the Section 66A verdict, making it highly relevant for Indian journalism students and media professionals.
Media Glossary and Student Contributions:
A unique feature of this book is the inclusion of a media glossary and contributions from some of the students of Lady Shri Ram College, who helped compile case studies and key concepts. This makes the book more engaging and relatable for students, offering a fresh perspective on media laws and ethics. Credit given to them in the book is another inspiration for the students.
Conclusion:
The book provides legal knowledge and encourages critical thinking about journalism’s ethical responsibilities. With discussion points at the end of each chapter, it pushes readers to reflect on real-world media challenges.
With its balanced mix of legal explanations, ethical discussions, and real-world examples, Media Laws And Ethics is an essential read for journalism students, educators, and aspiring media professionals. It helps readers understand the fine line between press freedom and journalistic responsibility, making it a must-read for anyone entering the field.
Written By:
Jiya Gupta
Semester 2
B.A. (Hons.) Journalism
Lady Shri Ram College for Women
Delhi University
Links related to this book:
https://vartikananda.com/books/media-laws-and-ethics/
https://vartikananda.com/category/media-laws-and-ethics/
https://vartikananda.blogspot.com/2021/04/media-ethics-and-law-journalism.html
S. No. Title
1 Introduction
2 How Social Media Has Helped The Masses
3 Why Are Ethics Necessary For Social Media?
4 Ethics For Wrong Reporting
5 Challenges To Social Media Ethics
6 Privacy and Social Media
7 Fake News
8 Cyber Security
Recent Government Guidelines on Social Media
Conclusion
Introduction
Social media is communication through websites and other online platforms (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn) that are used by large groups of people to share information, develop social and professional contacts, and promote business.
The fast moving era also influenced technological growth. Nowadays almost everyone can share information and communicate directly by using social media through the internet which saves more time and cost.
Indeed, users have freedom in using social media to communicate with anyone. What is ignored here is the ethics in using it. It would be much better if users know what ethics should be noticed when using social networking.
How Social Media Has Helped The Masses
Today, social media has become a major part of numerous lives through countless websites and apps, and people have been able to connect with others and share their thoughts, emotions, experiences, etc. It’s been able to provide a source of entertainment and shopping, and many businesses have even found it useful for promotion and marketing. At this point, social media has had such a huge impact on society that it seems like people couldn’t live without it.
1. Across industries, social media is going from a “nice to have” to an essential component of any business strategy
It’s a trend that is already spreading to businesses, whether it be because of digital marketing or new customer service communication channels. O
2. Social media platforms may be the banks of the future Imagine being able to pay your rent or make an investment through your favourite social network. Social media is transforming banking relationships in very significant ways, from improving customer service to allowing users to send money to others via online platforms. New financial technology companies are using social media to help people simply open a bank account. Social media can even impact your ability to get a loan.
3. Social media is shaking up healthcare and public health The health industry is already using social media to change how it works, whether through public health campaigns or virtual doctor’s visits on Skype. It’s also helped groups of people, such as patients suffering from the same condition
4. Social media is changing how we govern and are governed Civic participation and engagement has been transformed with social media. Social media allows citizens to be the source of ideas, plans and initiatives in an easier way than ever before. In the future, we can expect more and more leaders to embrace this type of transparent governance, as it becomes easier for them to interact with their constituents. Whereas politicians and government officials once had to travel to interact with citizens, now online town halls strengthen the connections between them, while providing a platform for direct input on government initiatives.
5. Social media is helping us better respond to disasters
From Facebook’s Safety Check – which allows users in disaster zones to mark themselves as safe – to the rise of the CrisisMappers Network, we’ve seen many
examples of how social media and digital communications more broadly are helping respond to disasters.
6. Social media is helping us tackle some of the world’s biggest challenges, from human rights violations to climate change Content shared on social media has increasing potential to be used as evidence of wartime atrocities and human rights violations.
This capacity for social media to bring together disparate but like-minded people is also helping fight another enormous challenge: climate change. Social media has become an important tool for providing a space and means for the public to participate in influencing or disallowing environmental decisions historically made by governments and corporations that affect us all. It has created a way for people to connect local environmental challenges and solutions to larger-scale narratives that will affect us as a global community.
7. Business impact
Businesses across the globe can now amplify their brand message to a wider audience than they could ever dream of doing before achieving success that they could only wish for. In the old days, the mass media ruled. A company had to pony up thousands or even millions of dollars to be heard in most cases. Very large companies with deep pockets ruled the roost. Only those businesses could afford to have wider reach.
Small companies are curving out a market for themselves amongst the 2. 4 billion people are estimated to be connected on social media quite easily. Compared to television advertisements and other expensive forms of marketing, social media presence is a cheap and effective means to enhance brand image and popularity.
8. Social Impact
● In terms of social circles, social media has broken down barriers when it comes to communicating and we are spoilt for choice when it comes to ways of getting in contact with someone.
● Social media has also made it easier for us to express ourselves. Whether that is through Facebook, Instagram pictures, YouTube videos, Medium articles. Normal people now have the capacity to make their opinion known on a massive scale. Within a few minutes, thousands could know about your opinion.
● Social media has also made it easier for us to track people down. There are seemingly endless sources we can search to access the information we need to find the people we have to find.
● Social networks offer the opportunity for people to reconnect with their old friends and acquaintances, make new friends, trade ideas, share content and pictures, and many other activities.
No doubt that social media is changing and will continue to change our society. This change is permanent because the upcoming generation won’t even know a world where social media does not exist. This has its advantages and disadvantages, but like everything else, it’s up to the user to decide whether social media can enhance their lives or not and this all depends on how they decide to use it.
Why Are Ethics Necessary For Social Media?
Social media has become an integral part of our lives. It has given us a platform to share necessary information with just a single click. Through social media, we are having access to the tiniest bit of information of every nook and corner of the world. As information we share through social media can be interpreted differently by different people. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the sensitivity of an issue that we talk about on social media and sentiments of people attached to it.
Social media provides us a platform to speak our minds and express our opinions but it can take an extreme turn if one does not handle the flow of information rationally. To reduce such chances of social media abuse, ethical code of conduct is necessary to guide social media users that what information requires the attention and how it’d be helpful to people. Social media provide a freedom to communicate with anyone we want but sometimes what we ignore is the ethical ways to do it and lack of awareness about those ethics can prompt social problems.
Some of the ethics that one must keep in mind while accessing social media platforms are
1. Polite communication: there have been many cases when people use abusive words and address people harshly, both intentionally and unintentionally. A polite communication and proper use of words will set off good communication, which is very necessary to build a good rapport and earn respect from the people whom we are connected through social media.
2. News validity: nowadays people easily get influenced by hoax news and it leads to greater social issues. Therefore, it is very necessary to check the validity of news before sharing it on social media.
3. Avoid using too much personal information: it is important to be clear about not sharing your personal life on social media excessively as it can be used to harm you. Therefore, one must not share his/her personal info like contact number, mail id or home address on social media. We must be wise about laying some boundaries between our social life and personal life.
4. Mention the source: while sharing any video, picture or writing, one must mention its source and always avoid copy pasting the content. it’ll show that you appreciate the work done by other people and stay truthful about the info you share.
5. Avoid conflict triggering information: one must decide wisely to share triggering images of any violent issue or accident images. There must be a warning mentioned for the viewers if they want to see it or not as they can generate heated debates, violence and wrong ideas. Also, we must be sensitive about spreading any information related to race and religion.
Ethics For Wrong Reporting
In light of fake news and spread of misinformation, wrong reporting and unethical reportage of news events. Journalism is an ethical profession that includes the reporting of events in a true and crisp manner. Here are 6 Ethics for Journalism and reporting:-
1. Truth and Accuracy
Journalists cannot always guarantee ‘truth’, but getting the facts right is the cardinal principle of journalism. We should always strive for accuracy, give all the relevant facts we have and ensure that they have been checked. When we cannot corroborate information we should say so.
2. Independence
Journalists must be independent voices; we should not act, formally or informally, on behalf of special interests whether political, corporate or cultural. We should declare to our editors – or the audience – any of our political affiliations, financial arrangements or other personal information that might constitute a conflict of interest.
3. Fairness and Impartiality
Most stories have at least two sides. While there is no obligation to present every side in every piece, stories should be balanced and add context. Objectivity is not always possible, and may not always be desirable (in the face for example of brutality or inhumanity), but impartial reporting builds trust and confidence.
Perhaps ethical reporting can be achieved through fairness and impartial reportage of events by the reporters.
4. Humanity
Journalists should do no harm. What they publish or broadcast may be hurtful, but they should be aware of the impact of their words and images on the lives of others. In addition, they should report events in a humane manner and refrain from reporting information in an insensitive manner.
5. Accountability
A sure sign of professionalism and responsible journalism is the ability to hold ourselves accountable. When we commit errors we must correct them and our expressions of regret must be sincere not cynical. We listen to the concerns of our audience. We may not change what readers write or say but we will always provide remedies when we are unfair.
6. Proper attribution
Journalists must never plagiarise. If they use information from another media outlet or journalist, they need to attribute it to them. Moreover, they must quote the source of their information in order to be clear and concise while reporting news.
Challenges To Social Media Ethics
No doubt, social media has several benefits and allows us to connect with people all over the world with similar interests. but as everything has its pros and cons, so does the use of social media. Along with the benefits, it comes with its own challenges. Some of them are
1. OVERSHARING- sometimes people overshare about their personal life. They tend to put everything on social media like where they are having dinner, what activity they are doing, what places they are visiting, etc. it seems normal to share this information but it pin-points the location of the user which can be easily traced and puts them in danger. Oversharing can also lead to damage to a person's reputation especially if the intent is to leverage the platform for business. Photos of drunken behaviour, drug use, partying or other inappropriate content can change the perception of people about you.
2. AUTHENTICITY- another challenge that social media users face is lack of authenticity of content which can be very problematic. Sharing of unauthentic content
can unknowingly make people get involved in activities that might defame someone’s reputation.
3. IMPACT ON PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT- today young age group people, mainly students are very active in sharing content on social media. They are the most active users of the platforms. Apart from spending long hours on social media, it can impact on their personal growth. Rather than being productive and doing activities that can lead them one step closer to their future goals, they spend hours and hours sitting and scrolling down on their Instagram.
Privacy and Social Media
Social media and the information/digital era have “redefined'' privacy. In today’s Information Technology—configured societies, where there is continuous monitoring, privacy has taken on a new meaning.
● Personal computers and devices such as our smartphones enabled with Global Positioning System (GPS), Geo locations and Geo maps connected to these devices make privacy as we know it, a thing of the past. It is almost impossible to say privacy exists in this digital world.
● The open nature of the social networking sites and the avenues they provide for sharing information in a “public or semi-public” space create privacy concerns by their very construct. Information that is inappropriate for some audiences are many times inadvertently made visible to groups other than those intended and can sometimes result in future negative outcomes.
● Technology has reduced the gap between professional and personal spaces and often results in information exposure to the wrong audience. The reduction in the separation of professional and personal spaces can affect image management especially in a professional setting resulting in the erosion of traditional professional image and impression management.
● Privacy in SNSs is “multifaceted.” Users of these platforms are responsible for protecting their information from third-party data collection and managing their personal profiles. However, participants are usually more willing to give personal and more private information in SNSs than anywhere else on the Internet. This can be attributed to the feeling of community, comfort and family that these media provide for the most part.
Potential Dangers
1. Identity theft - Identity theft occurs when someone uses another person's personal identifying information, like their name, identifying number, or credit card number, without their permission, to commit fraud or other crimes.
2. Preteens and early teenagers - Among all other age groups, in general, the most vulnerable victims of private-information-sharing behavior are preteens and early teenagers.
3. Stalking - With the amount of information that users post about themselves online, it is easy for users to become a victim of stalking without even being aware of the risk.
4. Unintentional fame - Unintentional fame can harm a person's character, reputation, relationships, chance of employment, and privacy- ultimately infringing upon a person's right to the pursuit of happiness.
5. Online victimization - Social networks are designed for individuals to socially interact with other people over the Internet. However, some individuals engage in undesirable online social behaviors, which negatively impacts other people's online experiences.
6. Surveillance - Every online move leaves cyber footprints that are rapidly becoming fodder for research without people ever realizing it. Social media sites are collecting data from us just by searching something such as "favorite restaurant" on our search engine.
7. Law enforcement prowling the networks - Government use of social media monitoring software can be used to geographically track us as we communicate. It can chart out our relationships, networks, and associations. It can monitor protests, identify the leaders of political and social movements, and measure our influence.
8. Mob rule - The idea of the 'mob rule' can be described as a situation in which control is held by those outside the conventional or lawful realm.
9. Location updates - Foursquare, Facebook, Loopt are applications which allow users to check- in and these capabilities allow a user to share their current location information to their connection. the disclosure of location information within these networks can cause privacy concerns among mobile users.
10. Invasive privacy agreements - Another privacy issue with social networks is the privacy agreement. The privacy agreement states that the social network owns all of the content that users upload. This includes pictures, videos, and
messages are all stored in the social networks database even if the user decides to terminate his or her account.
Today social networks are becoming the platform of choice for hackers and other perpetrators of antisocial behavior. In many cases users unintentionally disclose
information that can be both dangerous and inappropriate. Protecting privacy in today’s networked society can be a great challenge. The digital revolution has indeed distorted our views of privacy, however, there should be clear distinctions between what should be seen by the general public and what should be limited to a selected group.
Fake News
The glut of information has generated intense competition for people's attention. Stories and opinions can gain exposure with unprecedented speed, giving individuals around the globe continuous access to a near-real-time conversation about both important and trivial matters. As Nobel Prize–winning economist and psychologist Herbert A. Simon noted, “What information consumes is rather obvious: it consumes the attention of its recipients.” One of the first consequences of the so-called attention economy is the loss of high-quality information. Information overload has led to an overflow of content that is generally too much for the masses to consume. They rather go through the top stories and news and prefer to share/ retweet them. While academic research on the dark aspects of social media use, which includes information overload, social media fatigue, fear of missing out and coping strategies, has intensified the perceptions and behaviours underlying the sharing of fake news are not clear. With the increasing popularity of a wide variety of internet-enabled devices and advanced mobile internet speeds, more and more people are getting involved with social media.
Often referred to as “fake news” in modern times, the term “misinformation” is defined as false or inaccurate information that may be distributed with the intent to deceive those who read it.
Information or opinions that you disagree with may not necessarily constitute misinformation. While the term “fake news” is often used as a pejorative in journalism today.
Misinformation On SMPs
1. Clickbait
Clickbait is sensationalized content or headlines designed to attract attention by appealing to readers’ emotions (often anger) or curiosity. It is usually light on facts or any other meaningful information. Clickbait can spread fake news. Incensed readers may share this poorly researched and poorly written content with their social circles, directing bad information to more and more eyes.
2. Misleading Headlines
Misleading headlines can be used to generate interest by appealing to our emotions and curiosity. Even if the article itself is well-written and based on fact, the content can give a false impression if the headline is misleading. For this reason, such headlines may be called “clickbait,” even if they don’t fit the definition of that term as outlined above. Unfortunately, research indicates that most social media users share articles based on the headline without actually having read the article. If the headline doesn’t accurately reflect the truth, it may have the same effect as stories that are complete fabrications.
3. Unreliable news
Unreliable news sources tend to focus more on opinion-based than fact-based reporting, and they generally lack strong fact-checking. They often demonstrate clear biases and present skewed information, failing to present balanced perspectives on topics they discuss.
The Honeycomb Framework
The honeycomb is a popular framework that sheds light on the possible reasons for sharing of information on social media platforms (SMP). Developed by Kietzmann et al. (2011), the framework covers seven social media building blocks: identity, conversations, sharing, presence, relationships, reputation and groups. Scholars have used the honeycomb framework to study social media adoption (Ngai et al., 2015), online recovery strategies (Azemi et al., 2019), etc. Highlighting the shortage of frameworks and theories to analyse social media strategies, Effing and Spil (2016) suggested that the framework serves as a reasonable basis for examining the various functions of social media. Given that the framework explores the reasons for exchange of information on SMPs, it is ideal for the current study's focus on the dissemination process of fake news. In this study, we use it to better understand the emergent themes that represent the manifestations of fake-news sharing behaviour.
Cyber Security
The rise and evolution of social media has changed the definition of communication and social interaction. We have seen how different social media platforms like Facebook and twitter have brought a revolutionary change to the way we used to use the Internet for both personal and professional purposes. There is no doubt or space to deny the effective impact of these social media platforms on our regular life, professional life, and even on our business. Every good thing has some drawbacks and loopholes, and it is advised to be aware about those loopholes before getting trapped inside of those loopholes. Online or cyber security is one such issue which is directly involved with the uses and impacts of social media networks. As the growth of social networking sites has
brought various benefits it also has brought various security concerns. It also provides a vulnerable platform to be exploited by the attackers. Some issues associated are as follows.
● Misusing Identity: The attacker impersonates the identity of any user results in misusing identity. The attackers attack through the applications in which they ask for granting permission for accessing the information provided in Social Networking Sites.
When a user allows doing so, they will gain access to all the information and that information can be misused without the knowledge of the user.
● Threats from using 3rd Party Applications: These applications seek permission from the user to access personal information for all the various games and apps. The user grants the app a certain level of permission concerning the user’s information. And some of these applications which are playing at the foreground may download malware on the user’s computer or phone without their consent.
● Trusting Social Networking Sites Operators: The contents that user uploads or posts on social networking sites, the information is available with the networking operators. The operators can save account data even after deletion.
● Viruses, Phishing Attacks and Malwares: Viruses and malware often find their way onto your computer through those annoying ads. After gaining access to the network, the attacker can access or steal confidential data by spreading spam mails.
● Legal Issues: Posting contents that are offensive to any individual or community or country. There are legal risks associated with the use of social networking sites like leaking confidential information on sites or invading someone’s privacy.
● Tracking Users: It can cause physical security concerns for the user, as the third parties may access the roaming information of the user by collecting the real-time update on the user’s location.
● Privacy of Data: Users share their information on social networking sites and can cause privacy breaches unless proper security measures are applied. For example, everyone can see the information of a user if the user’s default setting is ‘public’.
Recent Government Guidelines on Social Media
The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeITY) has announced its draft Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, for social media platforms, OTT players & digital media with significant recommendations including asking social media companies to give out the originator of a message or tweet as the case may be. Government has recently come up with new guidelines to curb the misuse of social media platforms and to regulate OTT platforms, messaging services and news portals. These rules will be requiring compliance of foreign-tech giants operating in India like Whastapp, Facebook, Twitter, Netflix, Amazon, etc.
Social media platforms with minimum 50 lakh registered users are classified as significant social media intermediaries and are subject to maximum compliances. However, the Government may require any other social media platform to also comply with rules applicable to significant social media intermediaries if services of such platform create a material risk to the sovereignty or integrity of India.
New rules and regulations given by Government for Social Media use are
1. All significant social media intermediaries are required to appoint: ● Chief Compliance Officer who shall be responsible for ensuring
compliance with the Act and Rules.
● Nodal Contact Person for 24×7 coordination with law enforcement agencies.
● Resident Grievance Officer who shall perform the functions mentioned under Grievance Redressal Mechanism.
Each of the above are required to be Indian residents.
The Rules also necessitate significant social media intermediaries to have a physical contact address in India. This mandatory physical presence in India will have significant implications for foreign players in terms of setting up infrastructure and deployment of resources and taxation.
2. Active monitoring of harmful content
Significant social media intermediaries are now required to endeavour to deploy technology-based measures, including automated tools to identify information that depicts rape, child sexual abuse or conduct, or information that has previously been
removed. The rules also require maintenance of appropriate human oversight, and periodic review of automated tools.
3. Verification of users
Significant social media intermediaries are to provide a mechanism for verification of user accounts, like through mobile numbers. Verified users are to be identified by a demonstrable mark such as a tick or dot. Though such verification by users is voluntary, it may still be a setback for user privacy.
4. Identification of originator of information
Messaging services (with more than 50 lakh users) will be required to enable identification of the first originator of information if required by a court order or an order of the Government under Section 69 of the IT Act. Such identification of a user brings into question the end-to-end encryption offered by services such as WhatsApp, Telegram, Signal, etc.; and whether identifying a user as the “first originator” of mischievous information accurately is practically possible for a platform.
With the new rules, India joins nations across the world increasingly looking to regulate social media platforms. Recently, Twitter clashed with the Indian government on content takedown requests. The government had asked the micro-blogging giant to remove some 1,100 accounts and posts for alleged spread of misinformation about the widespread protests by farmers against new agricultural laws.
5. OTT content platforms, digital media
The government has called for a grievance redressal system for OTT platforms and digital news media portals as well. The government is also asking OTT platforms and digital news media to self-regulate and wants a mechanism for addressing any grievances.
While films have a censor board, OTT platforms will require to self-classify their movies and content based on age. The government wants the OTT players to classify films based on 13+, 16+ and those for adults and clarified it is not bringing any kind of censorship to these platforms. There has to be a mechanism of parental lock and ensuring compliance with the same. Platforms like Netflix already have an option for a parental lock.
Conclusion
Currently, the use of social media has become a part of human’s life everywhere. It allows the users to get and share information all over the world in a very short time.
Unfortunately, the consequences of social media abuse in spreading information also affect the number of users who enter the legal domain resulting from the information spread on social media that is unethical.
As an effort to reduce the problem in using social media, ethical conduct is needed to prevent from mutually insulting or accusing others for no apparent reason. As a matter of fact, these matters will lead the users into law for being careless in spreading information on the internet.
In today’s information age, one’s digital footprint can make or break someone; it can be the deciding factor on whether or not one achieves one’s life-long ambitions. Unethical behavior and interactions on social media can have far reaching implications both professionally and socially. Posting on the Internet means the “end of forgetting,” therefore, responsible use of this medium is critical.
The unethical use of social media has implications for privacy and can result in security breaches both physically and virtually. The use of social media can also result in the loss of privacy as many users are required to provide information that they would not divulge otherwise. Social media use can reveal information that can result in privacy breaches if not managed properly by users. Therefore, educating users of the risks and dangers of the exposure of sensitive information in this space, and encouraging vigilance in the protection of individual privacy on these platforms is paramount. This could result in the reduction of unethical and irresponsible use of these media and facilitate a more secure social environment. The use of social media should be governed by moral and ethical principles that can be applied universally and result in harmonious relationships regardless of race, culture, religious persuasion and social status.
