Additional link: REP: VOYEURISM IN JOURNALISM | Dr. Vartika Nanda: Media Educator & Prison Reformer
(This reading is arranged by Jesmeh and Rinki, students of Journalism Honours, LSR)
1. Introduction
In the evolving landscape of media, the line between informing the public and intruding upon private lives has blurred. Voyeurism in journalism refers to the practice of reporting that prioritizes sensationalism, private suffering, and intimate details, often under the guise of public interest. It involves the observation of individuals in vulnerable or private moments, typically without consent, to entertain or captivate an audience. This phenomenon has historical roots in tabloid culture and yellow journalism but has gained new relevance in an age dominated by 24/7 news cycles, reality television, and social media. As media technology advances and audience appetites shift, the voyeuristic impulse is increasingly normalized, raising urgent ethical and philosophical concerns.
2. Theoretical Frameworks
Understanding voyeurism in journalism requires engagement with key theoretical perspectives:
Media Ethics and Moral Philosophy: Ethical journalism prioritizes truth, minimization of harm, and respect for subjects. Kantian ethics foreground duty and the intrinsic value of individuals, challenging the exploitation embedded in voyeuristic content. Utilitarian perspectives, however, might justify intrusive reporting if it serves a greater public good—an often-abused rationale.
Surveillance Culture and Panopticism (Foucault): Michel Foucault’s concept of the panopticon—where individuals internalize surveillance—illuminates how subjects of media scrutiny may perform or suppress behaviors due to constant visibility. Journalists, acting as agents of public gaze, contribute to this surveillance apparatus, often without accountability.
Spectacle and Sensationalism (Debord): Guy Debord’s Society of the Spectacle critiques how real experiences are replaced by representations. Media turn suffering into spectacle, prioritizing affective visual narratives over context or dignity, transforming public crises and personal tragedies into consumable content.
3. Forms of Voyeuristic Journalism
Voyeurism manifests in various genres of media coverage:
Tabloid and Celebrity News: Paparazzi culture thrives on the invasion of celebrity privacy, from photographing private vacations to exposing relationship turmoil. These outlets often frame intrusion as transparency or accountability.
Crime and Disaster Reporting: Journalistic focus on grisly crime scenes, grieving victims, or disaster aftermaths caters to morbid curiosity rather than public good. The media’s presence in moments of acute trauma often hinders rescue or healing.
Reality TV and True Crime Documentaries: These genres blur fiction and journalism, presenting real people and events in dramatized formats. They often rely on emotional manipulation, selective editing, and framing that dehumanizes subjects.
Social Media and Citizen Journalism: The rise of user-generated content has democratized reporting but also intensified voyeurism. Livestreams of violence or tragedy often circulate without context, consent, or ethical gatekeeping.
4. Case Studies
4.1 Princess Diana’s Death and Paparazzi Culture
The tragic death of Princess Diana on August 31, 1997, marked a pivotal moment in the discourse on media ethics and privacy. While being pursued by paparazzi in Paris, Diana's vehicle crashed, leading to her untimely demise. The public outcry was immediate and intense, with many attributing blame to the relentless media pursuit. Diana's brother, Earl Spencer, poignantly remarked during her funeral that she was "the most hunted person of the modern age".
In the aftermath, significant changes were implemented to curb invasive journalistic practices. The UK's Press Complaints Commission revised its code of conduct, explicitly prohibiting harassment and persistent pursuit by journalists . Despite these reforms, challenges persist, especially with the rise of social media platforms where unregulated content can perpetuate similar invasions of privacy.
4.2 9/11 Coverage and Trauma Broadcasting
The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks presented unprecedented challenges for media outlets. Live broadcasts captured harrowing images, including individuals leaping from the Twin Towers, which, while informative, also raised ethical concerns about the potential re-traumatization of viewers and victims' families. The immediacy and rawness of the coverage sparked debates about the balance between the public's right to know and the potential psychological harm caused by such graphic content.
Scholars have critiqued this form of reporting as contributing to a culture of "trauma voyeurism," where audiences consume distressing content, potentially leading to desensitization and compassion fatigue. The ethical dilemma centers on whether the dissemination of such images serves the public interest or merely satisfies a morbid curiosity.
4.3 Live Crime Reporting: School Shootings
The advent of real-time reporting during school shootings has further complicated the ethical landscape of journalism.During the 2006 Dawson College shooting in Montreal, live broadcasts included interviews with students hiding inside the building, inadvertently revealing their locations and potentially endangering their lives. The Canadian Broadcast Standards Council later faulted the radio station CKNW for airing "potentially dangerous information," highlighting the risks associated with live reporting in volatile situations.
Similarly, the 2007 Virginia Tech shooting saw a graduate student capture video footage of the incident on his cellphone, which was widely disseminated across media platforms. While the footage provided a visceral account of the tragedy, it also raised questions about the role of citizen journalism and the ethical implications of broadcasting such content without editorial oversight.
These instances underscore the tension between the immediacy of information dissemination and the responsibility to protect individuals' safety and dignity during crises.
5. Impact on Subjects
Voyeuristic journalism often treats individuals as objects of spectacle rather than as subjects with agency and dignity. The consequences for those who become unwilling participants in such media narratives can be profound and long-lasting. These impacts can be categorized into three key areas: psychological harm and exploitation, loss of privacy and dignity, and victim re-traumatization.
5.1 Psychological Harm and Exploitation
The psychological toll on individuals who find themselves unwillingly thrust into the media spotlight can be severe. When private suffering is transformed into public content—especially in the aftermath of trauma such as violent crime, sexual assault, or disaster—victims are often left feeling violated.
Research has shown that excessive media attention can contribute to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depression (Bernstein et al., 2007). In cases where individuals are identified without their consent, the loss of control over one's own narrative exacerbates feelings of powerlessness.
For instance, survivors of mass shootings or victims of domestic violence often report distress at seeing their images or stories repeatedly broadcast, especially when media coverage prioritizes sensational elements over their lived reality (Houston et al., 2009). This is particularly damaging for children and marginalized individuals, whose stories are often simplified or manipulated to fit media frames.
5.2 Loss of Privacy and Dignity
Voyeuristic reporting often strips individuals of their privacy under the pretext of serving the public interest. Media outlets may justify the publication of sensitive information by citing the "right to know," yet fail to consider whether the story genuinely serves democratic accountability or merely panders to curiosity.
The ethical principle of respect for persons, rooted in Kantian moral philosophy, demands that individuals be treated as ends in themselves—not as means to an audience’s entertainment or a publication’s profits. However, voyeuristic journalism often violates this principle by reducing people to spectacles, especially in the context of grief, poverty, or violence.
For example, during the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, numerous media outlets published images of Black victims stranded without aid, often without consent. Critics argued that such coverage perpetuated racialized tropes of helplessness and suffering, undermining the dignity of the people portrayed (Tierney, Bevc, & Kuligowski, 2006).
5.3 Victim Re-traumatization
Media can inadvertently re-traumatize victims by repeatedly airing footage, publishing personal details, or reviving their stories years after the event. This phenomenon is particularly troubling in the digital age, where content is archived, searchable, and shareable indefinitely.
Scholars have described this as a form of "secondary victimization"—when institutions or processes compound the original trauma rather than aid in recovery (Maercker & Müller, 2004). This is common in high-profile legal cases, where survivors of sexual violence are not only subject to the trauma of the event itself but also to invasive media coverage of court proceedings and public reactions.
Moreover, in true crime reporting, victims’ stories are often retold with dramatic embellishments, sound effects, and re-enactments. These forms of media commodify trauma, turning real suffering into consumable entertainment. The emotional and mental burden on surviving families is rarely acknowledged in the process.
6 Impact on Audience
Audience has access to social media and different sites where they connect and consume whatever that they want, at any point of time. The world was never so open and connected like this. This has also escalated the spread of sensation, misinformation and exaggerated reporting.
Voyeurism reporting in news coverage typically includes stories about incidents of voyeurism, such as individuals secretly capturing or disseminating images of others engaging in private acts, and the legal and societal implications of these actions.
Now, Does it impact the audience who are consuming it? If yes, how?
Consuming such contents can influence the audience mentally, socially and psychologically.
1.
Desensitization -1 in 3 women across the globe have experienced some form of violence against them. Whereas, in the US, 1 out of 4 males have experienced some form of sexual violence (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2024). Every day we hear tragic news about victims being subjected to horrible torture and violence that is almost hard to imagine. However, we also see some people who don’t seem affected by it or even blame victims. This is caused due to the phenomena we call desensitization. Desensitization refers to the process of being regularly exposed to violence, which leads to less emotional and physiological response to violence and abuse. Researchers revealed a strong link between exposure to violent pornography and desensitization towards victims of sexual abuse.
This unhealthy perception towards the victim affects both the victim and the perpetrator as the never-ending vicious cycle of abuse continues.
2.
Trauma porn- The word has come from a Greek word which means Wound. When media( News, films, podcast, Television, Novels) try to evoke a traumatic experience in the audience through shocking and horrific visuals, sounds, writing or speech is referred as Trauma porn. This leads to reactions from audiences as they have actually gone through that situation.
Many times, journalists exaggerate a story of marginalized groups, victims and downtrodden to such an extent that it becomes a trauma porn for them. But why do they do so? To get a shocking and emotional response from the audience.
This phenomenon has become more prevalent with the rise of the competition to grab attention.
3.
Influence of voyeurism on social perception and empathy- Consuming such contents can affect social perception and empathy. They become apathetic from others' feelings or pain. They are likely to become less social and interactive. They may experience feelings of violation, distress, and a decreased sense of personal safety. Such incidents can lead to long-term psychological impacts, including symptoms of post-traumatic stress, anxiety, depression, and a diminished sense of trust in others (McIvor & Petch, 2006).
Additionally, it can also strain relationships, leading to mistrust and dissolution of partnerships or marriages. They may also fear access to appropriate therapeutic interventions or support groups.
7 Legal and Ethical considerations
→Press freedom v/s Individual right-
Freedom to press and personal rights to privacy and dignity are the fundamental rights in article 19 and 21 respectively of the Indian constitution. So, it becomes crucial to maintain a line between these two. Press has rights to report, investigate and analyse the story but it must be ethical and objective meaning it should not breach the privacy of an individual. In the case of breachment of individuals’ fundamental rights, they can directly approach to the supreme court of India under 32, which was called the heart and soul of the constitution by Dr. Ambedkar.
But who will decide this line? How this conflict will resolve? And what can consent play an important role?
In India, bodies like Ministry of information and broadcasting, Press council of India and National Broadcaster Association play a crucial role in formulation and regulation of the code of conduct for Press.
The Press Council of India (PCI), a statutory autonomous body set up under the Press Council Act, 1978 with the twin objectives of preserving the freedom of press and of maintaining and improving the standards of newspapers and the news agencies in India and also to inculcate the principles of self-regulation among the press. PCI has formulated ‘Norms of Journalistic Conduct’ which the Journalists and Newspapers have to follow. The Council takes cognizance, suo-motu or on complaints, of the contents in print media which are in violation of the ‘Norms of Journalistic Conduct’.
The ‘Norms of Journalistic Conduct’ balances between press freedom and individual rights is primarily addressed in the following sections:
1. Privacy:
This section emphasizes that journalists should respect individuals' privacy rights. Intrusions are only justified when there is an overriding public interest. The guidelines caution against sensationalism and unwarranted invasions into personal lives.
2. Accuracy and Fairness:
Journalists are advised to ensure that their reporting is accurate and fair. Misreporting or distortion can harm individuals' reputations and infringe upon their rights.
3. Right to Reply:
If an individual is the subject of critical reporting, they should be given an opportunity to present their side of the story. This ensures a balanced representation and protects individual rights.
4. Caution Against Defamation:
The norms advise media professionals to avoid defamatory content. While fair criticism is permissible, malicious intent or unfounded allegations can harm individuals and are discouraged.
Consequence of the personal breach:
If a journalist breaches the Press Council of India (PCI)'s Norms of Journalistic Conduct, the PCI can censure the journal or publication and warn them publicly because It has no power to punish.
Beyond PCI
If a journalist's actions cause significant harm (like defamation or privacy invasion), the aggrieved person can also file a civil or criminal case in court and seek damages or other remedies under laws like IPC, IT Act, or Privacy laws.
But in the case of Voyeurism, the consequences becomes more serious and goes beyond the jurisdiction of PCI.
Voyeurism was officially declared a criminal offence in India in 2013 through the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 as a consequence of the Nirbhaya gangrape case (2012), which triggered nationwide protests and a demand for stronger laws to protect women.
Clause 74(2) of Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita deals specifically with voyeurism, and retains the same definition and penalties as in the IPC.
Definition (as per BNS):
> "Whoever watches, or captures the image of a woman engaging in a private act... where she would usually expect not to be observed... shall be punished."
Punishment:
First conviction: Imprisonment of 1 to 3 years and fine.
Subsequent conviction: 3 to 7 years and fine.
8 Digital Age Challenges:
The digital age has brought significant challenges related to viral content, deepfakes, and algorithmic influence. Deepfakes, AI-generated audiovisual manipulations, pose threats to social and political reality, enabling online harassment and blurring the line between real and fake (Yadlin‐Segal & Oppenheim, 2020). These technologies are easily accessible, raising concerns about societal readiness to address their implications (Karnouskos, 2020). Detecting deepfakes remains a critical challenge, necessitating further research (Lyu, 2020). Social media, short-form video, and live streaming platforms have transformed information dissemination and audience behavior, altering the dynamics of virality and content creation (Yin, 2024). These changes have led to the rapid spread of both information and misinformation, while also fostering echo chambers. The shift towards user engagement and interactivity has reshaped content strategies, raising ethical questions about authenticity and algorithmic manipulation in the digital landscape (Yin, 2024).
Dilemmas in digital world
Information Overload: Constant flow of data affects attention span and critical thinking.
Privacy Concerns: Data collection by apps and platforms challenges personal boundaries.
Misinformation: Speed of sharing often overtakes fact-checking.
Mental Health: Pressure to perform online, comparison culture, and cyberbullying.
2. Viral Content and Clickbait Ethics
Discuss the tension between engagement and integrity:
Sensationalism vs. Accuracy: How headlines exaggerate to draw clicks, often misleading.
Impact on Journalism: Quality content gets buried under viral posts.
Emotional Manipulation: Using outrage or curiosity to provoke shares and reactions.
Monetization Incentives: Content creators often prioritize views over truth.
3. Deepfakes, Leaks, and AI Surveillance
Address the rise of AI-enabled threats to truth and privacy:
Deepfakes: Realistic fake videos/images can ruin reputations and spread false info.
Leaks: Whistleblowing vs. unethical data breaches—blurry lines in digital reporting.
AI Surveillance: Governments and companies tracking behavior—raises ethical red flags.
Trust Crisis: When what we see can be faked, belief in any media declines.
4. The Role of Algorithms in Promoting Voyeurism
Explore how recommendation systems push sensationalist or invasive content:
Algorithmic Bias: Promotes content that keeps users engaged, often shocking or private.
Loss of Consent: Private moments or personal tragedies go viral without permission.
Normalization of Voyeurism: Audiences become desensitized to privacy invasions.
Need for Regulation: Calls for ethical AI that prioritizes dignity and consent.
9 Counter Movements
Constructive journalism, also known as solutions journalism, is an emerging approach that aims to counter the negativity bias in news reporting by focusing on solutions and positive emotions (Nölleke, 2019). This approach seeks to enhance audience engagement and inspire prosocial behavior while maintaining traditional journalistic norms (Aitamurto & Varma, 2018). Recent research has highlighted the potential of constructive journalism in improving coverage of complex issues like human trafficking, emphasizing trauma-informed and hope-based reporting (Foot, 2024). A systematic review of literature on constructive and solutions journalism reveals a surge in academic interest, with studies exploring various methodological and conceptual approaches across different countries and institutions (Lough & McIntyre, 2021). While constructive journalism aligns with journalism's social responsibility function, there is an ongoing tension between its normative constructive role and the traditional monitorial role of journalism (Aitamurto & Varma, 2018).
1. Constructive Journalism and Solutions Reporting
A growing response to negativity and sensationalism in the media:
Focus on Solutions: Rather than just highlighting problems, this journalism explores how people are addressing them.
Empowerment over Fear: Encourages critical engagement and hope instead of anxiety or outrage.
Increased Audience Trust: People seek news that is not just true but also meaningful and actionable.
Examples: Outlets like The Solutions Journalism Network and Positive News champion this model.
2. Trauma-Informed Reporting Practices
Ethical storytelling that considers the emotional impact of stories on sources and audiences:
Sensitivity in Interviews: Especially with victims of violence, tragedy, or injustice.
Avoiding Re-Traumatization: Choosing words, images, and framing that respect survivors.
Contextual Storytelling: Providing background and systemic context rather than sensationalizing.
Training & Guidelines: More newsrooms now offer trauma-awareness training for reporters.
3. Accountability Journalism
Holding power to account in a digital age:
Watchdog Reporting: Investigates corruption, abuse of power, and systemic failures.
Data-Driven Exposés: Leveraging digital tools to uncover hidden truths.
Transparency and Ethics: Journalists strive for accuracy, fairness, and public interest.
Notable Examples: ProPublica, The Wire, and investigative units in The Guardian or The New York Times.
10 Conclusion
Voyeurism is a criminal activity where a person tries to look into the personal and intimate life of an individual, taking inappropriate pictures and videos, stalking, threatening etc. In the context of media, it refers to when the media sensationalizes the story in order to gain more views and public relations. It has a huge negative influence on mental health, shaping the social perspective etc. Here, ethics in journalism become very crucial.
The ethical imperative of truth-telling in journalism is central that it should be the profession's occupational norm. However, this principle must be balanced with respect for community and relationships (Christians et al., 1993). Storytelling plays a crucial role in human evolution and empathy development, highlighting its importance in media ethics (Hunte & Golembiewski, 2014). Journalists face complex moral responsibilities, including protecting confidential sources, respecting privacy, and maintaining objectivity while navigating censorship and freedom of the press issues (Jacquette, 2006). The future of ethical storytelling in media involves striking a balance between truth-telling and respect for individuals and communities. This requires a nuanced approach that recognizes the power of stories to shape society while adhering to professional ethical standards and considering the broader social impact of journalistic practices.
